Differences Core i3, Core i5, Core i7

Since Intel will stop selling Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad in 2010.
Therefore ... ok we share the new Intel processor ...
Core is a new range of Intel processors.

Core i3:
* Entry level processor.
* 2-4 Cores
* 4 Threads
* Hyper-Threading (efficient use of processor resources)
* 3-4 MB Catche
* 32 nm Silicon (less heat and energy)

Core i5:
* Mid range processor.
* 2-4 Cores
* 4 Threads
* Turbo Mode (turn off core if not used)
* Hyper-Threading (efficient use of processor resources)
* 3-8 MB Catche
* 32-45 nm Silicon (less heat and energy)


Core i7:
* High end processor.
* 4 Cores
* 8 Threads
* Turbo Mode (turn off core if not used)
* Hyper-Threading (efficient use of processor resources)
* 4-8 MB Catche
* 32-45 nm Silicon (less heat and energy)

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Intel Core vPro Processors

PCs built with Intel® Core™ vPro™ processors are specifically designed for business, delivering cost savings and control while improving security and remote manageability. Not only will businesses reduce power consumption costs, thanks to energy-saving features that help PCs meet ENERGY STAR1 requirements, but IT can also reduce maintenance costs by enabling remote configuration, diagnosis, isolation, and repair of infected PCs even when the operating system is unresponsive or the PC is turned off.

Smart security and remote manageability are built right in.

When it comes to security, programmable defense filters automatically guard against malicious attacks to help safeguard laptop and desktop PCs from malware. Intel's built-in Intel® Virtualization Technology (Intel® VT) provides greater flexibility and maximum system utilization by consolidating multiple environments into a single workstation or PC, giving you more agility to meet the demands of your business.

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Configure the DWL-2100AP

Web Configuration Utility
First, disable the Access the Internet using a proxy server function. To disable this function, go to Control Panel > Internet Options > Connections > LAN Settings and uncheck the enable box.
Open your web browser program such as Internet Explorer. Type the IP address of the DWL-2100AP in the address field (http://192.168.0.50) and press Enter. Make sure that the IP addresses of the
DWL-2100AP and your computer are in the same subnet.
After the connection is established, Enter your user name (admin) and your password (leave blank by default). Click OK to continue.
Installation Considerations
D-Link Air lets you access your network from anywhere you want. However, keep in mind, that range is limited by the number of walls, ceilings, or other objects that the wireless signals must pass through. Typical ranges vary depending on the types of materials and background RF noise in your home or business. The key to maximizing range is to follow these basic principles:
1. Keep the number of walls and ceilings to a minimum - Each wall or ceiling can rob your
D-Link Wireless product of 3-90 ft. of range. Position your Access Points, Residential Gateways, and computers so that the number of walls or ceilings is minimized.
2. Be aware of the direct line between access points, routers, and computers - A wall that is 1.5 feet thick, at a 45 degree angle, appears to be almost 3 feet thick. At a 2-degree angle it looks over 42 feet thick. Try to make sure that the access point and adapters are positioned so that the signal will travel straight through a wall or ceiling for better reception.
3. Building materials make a difference - A solid metal door or aluminum studs may have a negative effect on range. Try to position access points, routers, and computers so that the signal passes through drywall or open doorways and not other materials.
4. Make sure that the antenna is positioned for best reception by using the software signal strength tools included with your product.
5. Keep your product away (at least 3-6 feet) from electrical devices that generate RF noise, like microwaves, monitors, electric motors, UPS units, etc.
6. If you are using 2.4GHz cordless phones or X-10 (wireless products such as ceiling fans, lights, and home security systems), your wireless connection will degrade dramatically or drop completely. Anything using the 2.4Ghz frequency will interfere with your wireless network.
Installation

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Suzuka, the unsung Opteron

Sunnyvale-based chip maker Advanced Micro Devices came to the market with a new line of Opteron chips, shortly following the release of the six-core Opteron processor codenamed “Istanbul.” The new silicon solution, John Fruehe, director of Business Development for Server/Workstation products at AMD, says, comes under the codename “Suzuka” and hits the market as a quad-core processor developed for single-socket systems.

Suzuka doesn't seem to come to the shelves as a breathtaking product, yet it is intended to fulfill the needs of the cost-effective SME market. The latest AMD Opteron 1000 Series processor, Fruehe says, has not been developed to offer scalability, but will fit applications that are cost and power aware, such as web servers, small business servers and workstations.

The new chips come at speeds of 2.5GHz (Opteron 1381), 2.7GHz (Opteron 1385) and 2.9GHz (Opteron 1389), having been developed on the same core as the company's “Shanghai” CPU, another quad-core Opteron processor. Suzuka, manufactured under the 45-nm SOI process technology, comes with x86-64 processing cores on a monolithic die and features 512 KB of L2 cache per core, coupled with a shared 6 MB L3 cache.

The new processors will use the AM3 socket and not the 1207-pin Socket F, while also offering compatibility with existing AM2+ mobos (can be easily used on motherboards that work with Budapest quad-core chips – the single socket version of Barcelona). The new solutions feature system bus speeds of 2200 MT/s (HyperTransport bus actual speed of 1100 MHz), while sporting a rated TDP of around 115 W.

According to John Fruehe, the performance increase when moving from a quad-core “Budapest” chip to the new “Suzuka” is not the most impressive part in the process; the fact that the power consumption drops significantly with the new processor is. As for the price tags the new chips come to the market with, Opteron 1381 costs US $189, Opteron 1385 goes for $229, while Opteron 1389 has been priced at $269.

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BASICS DOS TUTORIAL

Before you begin this tutorial, please make sure that your prompt is C:\> If it is not, please do the following:
Directions:
1. Type: c:
2. Type: cd..
This should place you into the C:\> working directory.
NOTE: DOS is not case sensitive; therefore, a command can be entered in with CAPITAL LETTERS, lower-case letters, or a MiXtuRe of the two.
Hardware and Software Differences
There are two parts to a computer system, the hardware and the software. Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. An example of hardware components would be the monitor, keyboard and mouse. Software represents the programs which contain a set of instructions written to perform a certain task on the computer.
What is DOS?

DOS stands for Disk Operating System. DOS controls the computer’s hardware and provides an environment for programs to run. This system program must always be present when working with your computer.
Why You Need DOS
There are a variety of reasons why you need DOS. A few of them are listed below to satisfy your curiosity.
1. DOS controls the flow of information between you and the computer (translator).
2. DOS allows you to store information on your computer.
3. DOS allows you to retrieve information stored on your computer.
4. DOS interprets and translates the software you have on your computer.
5. DOS gives you access to all its function (i.e. saving, copying, and printing files).
Set the Date and Time
Most computers on campus have an internal clock that will automatically set the date and time for you when you turn the computer on. However, if your computer does not have this feature or your computer has two floppy drives, you will need to do the following steps to set the date and time.
Directions:
1. Type the date like this: 1-15-97
2. Press the return key (enter key).
3. Type the time like this: 8:46
4. Press return.
5. Notice that the C:\> prompt will appear.
DOS marks the date and time on everything you do. It is important to periodically check the date and time if you have an internal clock to see if it is correct. If you have a two floppy system, it is important to enter the correct date and time when you turn the computer on.
NOTE: Baynan sets the date and time for you automatically when you Login.
Check the Date and Time
DOS will let you check or change the date and time once it has been set. The procedure to do this is as follows:
Directions:
1. Type: date and press return.
2. If the correct date is displayed, simply press return. If the date is incorrect, type the correct date and press return.
3. Type: time and press return.
4. If the correct time is displayed, simply press return. If the time is incorrect, type the correct time and press return.
Directory Command
The DIRECTORY command is like a table of contents in a book. This directory will list the following information:
* Filenames
* File extensions
* Size of each file
* Date and time the file was last updated.
Directions:
1. At the C:\> type: dir and press return.
2. The list of files will scroll up and off the screen.
NOTE: At the end of the listing, there is a line that shows the number of bytes free on the hard drive.
Scroll Through the Directory Listing
When you type the DIR command and press return, the files begin to scroll vertically on your screen. If you have a lot of files it is difficult to read each one. By holding down the Control Key (CTRL) and the letter S at the same time, you are able to freeze the listing to view your files. When you are finished, press the spacebar for the list to continue.
NOTE: You must return to the C:\> before entering your next command.
Pause a Directory Listing
You can add a PAUSE command to your directory command which will allow you to view your directory one screen at a time.
Directions:
1. Type: dir/p and press return.
2. The screen freezes after it fills the screen with the files that are listed first in the directory.
3. Press the spacebar to continue listing you files.
4. Continue to press the spacebar until you return back to the C:\> prompt.
View a Wide Listing of Files
When you need to quickly view your files, you can add a /W to the directory command. This will display your files into five columns on the screen.
Directions:
1. Type: dir/w and press return.
2. DOS will list only the name of you file and the file extension on the screen.
NOTE: Use this command when you are not concerned with looking at the file size or the date it was created.
Recall a DOS Command
The F3 function key can be used to recall the last DOS command you typed in. If you would like to retrieve a previously entered command, you can also press the up arrow key continuously until you reach the desired command you were looking for.
NOTE: You can also type out each letter in your last command by using the right arrow key or the right cursor key. After you use the F3 key to recall a command, you can use the backspace key to edit any part of the command or add to your command.
Print a Directory Listing
You can print a list of your files in your directory by instructing DOS to send the information to your printer.
Directions:
1. Type: dir>prn and press return.
2. The > symbol stands for output. The PRN stands for printer.
NOTE: You can print a wide listing of your files by typing dir/w>prn
Laserjet printers and other sheetfeeder printers will not eject the page after the dir>prn command. You must take the printer off-line and press the form feed button. Remember to press the on-line button when you are done in order to continue using the printer.
Check for a Single File
Instead of using the directory command to look for one particular file, you can type the name of the file after the DIR command at the C:\> prompt.
Directions:
1. Make sure that you are at your C:\> prompt.
2. Type: dir format.com (filename.extension) and press return.
3. The screen will display a listing of the file or a file not found message.
Check for a Group of Files
The * symbol is referred to as a wildcard and stands for any character or group of characters. This is helpful when you want to list files that start with a particular letter or group.
Directions:
1. Type: dir c* and press return.
2. All filenames that begin with the letter C will be listed.
3. Press the F3 key.
4. Backspace twice and replace C* with A* and press return.
5. All filenames that begin with the letter A are listed.
List Files with the Same Extensions
You can also use the wildcard character * to look for a group of files with the same extension.
Directions:
1. Type: dir *.bat and press return.
2. All files with the .bat extension are listed.
3. Press the F3 key.
4. Backspace three times and replace the .bat extension with the .sys extension and press return.
5. All files with the .sys extension should now be listed.
Clear the Screen
When the screen get full of information, you may want to clear it. To do this, type CLS at the C:\> prompt and press return.
Create a File with DOS
Directions:
1. Type: copy con Quick.ltr and press return.
2. Type this message in the following format:
Bob
Sales are up 15%.
Good Job!
Craig
3. Press the F6 function key (^Z) and press return.
4. DOS gives you a message that 1 File(s) has been copied.
5. Type: dir q* and press return.
6. Now you can see the list of files beginning with the letter Q.
NOTE: You can also use the COPY command to print a file by typing: copy quick.ltr prn and press return.
Copy a File
You can use the COPY command to copy one file to another.
Directions:
1. Type: copy quick.ltr quick2.ltr and press return.
2. DOS will tell you one file has been copied.
3. Type: dir q* and press return.
4. You should have two files listed with different names.
NOTE: Filenames cannot be more than eight characters in length. File extensions cannot be more than three characters in length.
Copy a File with a New Extension
You can also use the COPY command to copy the file with a different filename extension.
Directions:
1. Type: copy quick.ltr quick.bac and press return.
2. Type: dir q* and press return.
3. Three files should be listed.
Type a File with DOS
If you need to check the contents of a particular file or any DOS file, you will need to use the TYPE command.
Directions:
1. Type: type quick2.ltr and press return.
2. DOS prints the contents of the file.
NOTE: Never use the TYPE command with files that have the .com, .exe, .sys, and .bas extensions. These are program files and will only display junk on the screen.
Rename a File
The RENAME command lets you rename a previous file with a new name.
Directions:
1. Type: ren quick2.ltr sales.ltr and press return.
2. Type: dir *.ltr and press return.
3. DOS lists only two files that have the .ltr extension: quick.ltr and sales.ltr.
Rename a Group of Files
With the wildcard character *, you can also use the RENAME command to change a group of files.
Directions:
1. Type: ren *.ltr *.bob and press return.
2. Type: dir *.bob and press return.
3. You should have two files listed with a .bob extension.
4. Type: dir *.ltr and press return.
5. There should be no files found with .ltr extensions.
NOTE: You can also rename a group of files that have the same name but different extensions. Type the RENAME command then the filename followed by the dot and the wildcard, space and then type the new filename followed by a dot and the wildcard character. It will look like this: filename.* newfilename.*
Create a Subdirectory
To create a subdirectory, you will need to use the MAKE DIRECTORY command, a.k.a. MD. The MD command is useful for organizing files on your hard drive. With subdirectories, you can create and store related files together. For example, one subdirectory could be used to store all word processing files and another for all spreadsheet files.
Directions:
1. Type: md \info and press return.
2. Type: dir *. and press return.
3. Notice the *. will list only the subdirectories.
Move to a Subdirectory
Once you have created a subdirectory, to move to that directory, you will use the CHANGE DIRECTORY command, a.k.a. CD.
Directions:
1. Type: cd \info and press return.
2. Type: cd and press return.
3. The name of the directory is listed.
Set the DOS Prompt
You can set or change the standard system prompt to display the name of the directory or subdirectory you are currently working in.
Directions:
1. Type: prompt $p $g and press return.
2. The DOS prompt tells you that you are working in the C directory (drive) and in the Info subdirectory.
3. Type: dir and press return.
4. The single dot stands for the current directory. The double dots stand for the parent directory (root). The dots are often referred to as place markers.
Move to the Parent Directory
DOS has a quick way to move from the current directory back to the parent directory.
Directions:
1. Type: cd.. and press return.
2. You will return back to the C:\> prompt.
Copy a File into a Subdirectory
The COPY command lets you copy files from one directory to another.
Directions:
1. Type: copy sales.bob \info and press return.
2. Type: dir \info and press return.
3. Notice that a copy of Sales.bob is copied into the subdirectory Info. The original file is also in the root directory.
Copy a Group of Files into a Subdirectory
When copying a group of files from the root directory into a subdirectory, it is necessary to use the wildcard character * along with the COPY command.
Directions:
1. Type: copy quick.* \info and press return.
2. DOS will list the files being copied.
3. Type: dir \info and press return.
4. Three files should be listed in the Info subdirectory.
List Files in a Subdirectory
The CHANGE DIRECTORY, a.k.a. CD, command will let you list files in your subdirectory from your hard drive.
Directions:
1. Type: cd \info and press return.
2. Type: dir and press return.
3. All files in the Info subdirectory are listed.
List Files in the Root from a Subdirectory
The DIRECTORY command is also used to get a listing of all the files in the root directory while in a subdirectory. The backslash character \ represents the root directory.
Directions:
1. Type: dir \ and press return.
2. All the files in the root directory are listed.
Select the Directory List
To look for a specific filename extension, you can use the SELECTED DIRECTORY command.
Directions:
1. Type: dir \*.bat and press return.
2. Only the files with the .bat extensions are listed.
3. Press the F3 key.
4. Backspace three times.
5. Type: sys and press return.
6. Now only the files with the .sys extensions are listed.
List Subdirectories
Directions:
1. Type: dir \*. and press return.
2. All the subdirectories are listed.
NOTE: The backslash character \ directs DOS to read from the root directory. The *. requests the listing of the subdirectories.
Delete a Single File
Periodically it is a good idea to delete files from the hard disk which are no longer needed or used. DOS makes it easy to remove these files with the DELETE command, a.k.a. DEL.
Directions:
1. Type: cd.. and press return.
2. The prompt shows you that you are back in the root directory.
3. Type: del sales.bob and press return.
4. Type: dir Sales.bob and press return.
5. Sales.bob is no longer listed because it has been deleted.
Delete a Group of Files
By using the wildcard character * you can delete a group of files from you hard Drive.
Directions:
1. Type: del quick.* and press return.
2. Type: dir quick.* and press return.
3. All Quick files have been deleted.
Delete all Files in a Subdirectory
There are two rules you will need to follow before removing a subdirectory.
RULE 1: All files in the subdirectory must be deleted.
NOTE: Never type DEL *.* when you are in the root directory. It will destroy all DOS files that are necessary to boot and operate the computer.
Directions:
1. Type: cd \info and press return.
2. Type: dir and press return.
3. Three files should be listed.
4. Type: del *.* and press return.
5. DOS will ask you if you are sure? (Y/N)
6. Type: Y and press enter.
Now that your subdirectory is empty, you can delete the subdirectory (see rule 2 below).
Remove a Subdirectory
RULE 2: You cannot be in the subdirectory that you wish to remove. You will need to return to the root directory (C:\> prompt).
Directions:
1. Type: cd.. and press return.
2. You should be back in the root directory.
3. Type: rd \info and press return.
4. Type: dir *. and press return.
5. Notice that the Info subdirectory is no longer listed.
Format a Floppy Disk
Before you can use a disk, you must format it.
Directions:
1. At the C:\> prompt type: format a:
2. The A drive will be the drive that you insert your disk into; hence, the a: after the Format command and press return.
3. You will be prompted with the message: "Insert new diskette for drive A: and press enter when ready."
4. Now insert the disk you wish to format and press return.
5. Once this formatting process is done, the following message will appear: "Format Completed." Then you will be prompted for a volume label. Simply press return again.
6. Now you will be asked if you would like to format another disk (Y/N)? Press N.
NOTE: If you receive a message like: "Track 0 bad" or "Disk unusable," your disk may be the wrong capacity. You can get help with this error message by typing:
Help Format.
Change the Default Drive
To change from your hard drive to a floppy drive, you will need to indicate this change as follows:
Directions:
1. Put a floppy disk into drive A.
2. Type: a: and press return.
3. Your prompt should change to A:\>
4. Type: dir and press return.
5. You are now able to see all the files on the floppy.
6. To change back to your hard drive, you will need to reverse this procedure.
7. Type: c: and press return. Now your prompt should be C:\>
Diskcopy Command
Sometimes there is a need to copy all the files on one floppy diskette to another floppy. First you will need a blank formatted disk (refer to section on formatting disks.)
Directions:
1. Type: diskcopy a: a: and press return.
2. When asked to put in the source disk, put in the diskette that has the information you want to copy into drive A and press return.
3. Wait a few seconds. When asked to insert a target disk, take out the diskette from drive A and insert the blank floppy disk and press return.
4. Once this process is complete, you will be prompted to write to another duplicate diskette (Y/N). Press N.
5. Then you will be prompted to copy another disk (Y/N)? Press N.
NOTE: If your machine has two floppy disk drives, insert the original (source) disk into drive A and the blank (target) disk into drive B. Then type: DISKCOPY A: B:
Copying a File from the Hard Drive to a Floppy Disk
Sometimes there is a need to copy a file from the hard drive onto a floppy disk. This is helpful if you would like to have an extra copy of a certain file as a backup or to transport the copied file to another computer.
Directions:
1. Type: copy a: and press return.
2. Wait for a few seconds, notice the red light on the floppy drive. Never attempt to remove a disk from the disk drive while this red light is on.
3. To check to see if the file was copied, type a: at the C:\> prompt and press return.
4. Type: dir and press return.

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Calibrate the notebook PC battery

Short discharges and recharges do not fully synchronize the battery's fuel gauge with the battery's state-of-charge. This can result in the amount of power available in one cycle being less than expected or the battery meter being inaccurate.
Under normal usage, batteries should be calibrated a minimum of once every 3 months. Your battery can be calibrated by following these steps:
Step 1 - Disable the Windows Power Management

In Windows, right-click the Desktop and select Properties in the menu list.
Click the Screen Saver tab and then click the Power button.
Under Power schemes, select Always On in the drop down menu.
Under Settings for Always On power scheme, select Never in each of the drop down menus.
Click OK on the Power Options Properties window and then click OK on the Display Properties window.
Step 2 - Fully charge the battery
Connect the AC adapter to the notebook.
Charge the battery until the Windows battery meter is at 100%.
Step 3 - Fully discharge the battery
Remove the AC adapter.
Keep the notebook on until the battery has completely drained and the notebook automatically turns off.
Connect the AC adapter to the notebook.
Keep the AC adapter connected to the notebook until the battery has completely charged.
Step 4 - Enable the Windows Power Management
In Windows, right-click the Desktop and select Properties in the menu list.
Click the Screen Saver tab and then click the Power button.
Under Power schemes, select Portable/Laptop in the drop down menu.
Click OK on the Power Options Properties window and then click OK on the Display Properties window.
Note: After completing the steps above, your notebook PC battery will be calibrated.

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C programming tutorial course: Setting up hardware and software.

C Programming Tutorial: Programming software : ICPROG (Free!)Download and install ICPROG which is PC software that generates the correct serial ICSP signals to program your PIC chip. You can use it either on a parallel port, serial port or USB port with a USB to serial adapter - ( USB <-> Serial untested).Note: Look in left frame for download button.
C Programming Tutorial: Setting the path to ICPROG You should setup the environment variable to icprog.exe so that it can be called from anywhere but if you don't you can still start icprog by double clicking icprog.exe in its installation directory.The installation location is up to you but you should put it into a directory that is in the current path so that windows can find it or add the directory (where you put ICPROG) to the system path environment variable.Unfortunately setting up the windows path is different for every windows installation from Windows 95 to XP so you will need to find the exact details for your operating system. Windows 95 uses autoexec.bat and config.sys. For XP you can set the path from Start --> Control panel --> System --> Advanced (tab) --> Environment variables. You can set the path for a user or the system. I usually set the system path but see below:Note : Do not delete the path variables and only add to the end of them. If unsure select the system path value and copy and paste it to a local editor. There edit it keeping all the original - make sure it is exactly the same with only your additions on the end. e.g. if you want to put icprog.exe in a directory c:\icprog-path add the text 'c:\icprog-path;' to the end. Note save the text editor text and check everything works as before - if it does not go back and set the path to what you started with.

C Programming Tutorial: ICPROG for Windows 2000/XP users Windows 2000 and XP stop you using the parallel port directly by adding a layer of software between your program and the parallel port. It's probably there so that no more than one process (e.g. printer) or user can access it at the same time - but a 'PC' is a personal computer usually used by one person this "feature" just gets in the way.What this means is it is a pain if you want to use the parallel port for hardware. To get round this you have to install another piece or software which *will* allow you access to the parallel port. For ICPROG this program is a system driver and you can also download it from the ICPROG page it is icprog.sysFor a parallel port programmer you need to install icprog.sys to allow the software to have parallel port access:Note: A Serial or USB port programmer does not have this restriction.Open an explorer window and navigate to the icprog install directory,Download the icprog.sys file to your icprog install directory i.e. in the same directory as icprog.exe.
C Programming Tutorial: Windows XP and ICPROGUsing explorer select icprog.exe, right click. Then select the Properties menu then the Compatibility tab. Make sure compatibility mode is disabled - icprog will set this for you as you follow the next instructions.Start ICPROG - a privileged instruction error occurs - ignore this - icprog starts.Now in icprog choose Menu --> Settings --> Options --> Misc (tab) and set Enable NT/2000/XP Driver - icprog will now re-start with the driver installed.
First circuit for the C Programming Tutorial Course: Next you need to construct the following circuit:Note D7 should be placed at the top right of your development board as this will form part of the dice circuit later on.

BOM for the C programming tutorial course.For this page - see below for BOM for the 1st complete circuit.Here is the list of parts for the above circuit (or Bill Of Materials):
C programming tutorial BOM
R14End of C Programming Tutorial BOM.The last 3 components are for the curve tracer which also uses 10k resistors for gain setting.
(Click here for the parts list and circuit for c programming course 1st project)
You also need a circuit board to work on or a solderless breadboard and wire for connecting up the circuit.
Preparing the 16F88 for the C Programming Tutorial:R1 stops the part entering the wrong programming mode (LVP mode). LVP mode is the default mode (Low Volt Programming) and is always enabled for new parts but it makes the pin unusable for anything else. Since there are not many pins in this particular part the first task is to disable LVP mode. You can do this by programming the part with the first program which has turned off the LVP fuse and at the same time it flashes the LED so once the part is programmed you can see that it's working.At this point you don't need to do any compilation or C coding so lets just go through the programming process.Note: Later diagrams may not show R1 as it is only important when1st programming the part (if you ensure that the LVP control is always set to off in the compiler project edit control panel - see videos for more information on that).
C Programming tutorial directory preparation.Create a working directory:
c:\pic-c-course
Download hex file for setting up the C programming tutorialDownload the following zip file:
Download file:
Download here.Download the file c-course-Intro.zip to that directory. Note: I use 7zip - just do a google search for '7zip' if you don't have an unzip program which is free and integrates into the windows shell - meaning you can right click in explorer and directly zip/unzip files.Unzip the file 'prog00-16F88-intro.zip' in the pic-c-course directory. It will create a directory c:\pic-c-course\prog00-16F88-intro\ in which will be a hex file.
C programming tutorial: Program the 16F88 using ICPROGFor this C programming tutorial you should have installed ICPROG so start that program up now. Setup the hardware interfaces for your programmer using the options menu.

Note see module 1 of the course for a video tutorial on ICPROG.
Load hex fileNow open the file (in ICPROG)
c:\pic-c-course\prog00-16F88-intro\prog00-16F88-intro.hexNow program the file into the PIC Microcontroller.Note: You can find detailed instructions on using ICPROG for this C programming tutorial here.
C programming tutorial: ResultYou should now have a circuit with a flashing LED - this is the equivalent of the "hello World" program you usually find in the start of C courses but because the microcontroller is only concerned with I/O ports there is no way of displaying a message yet ...... later on we'll look at RS232 where you can make a hello world program. Congratulations......you have programmed the microcontroller correctly and are now ready to start the C programming tutorial course. This proves that all the software and hardware is operating correctly.
C programming tutorial: Notes Things to note about the circuit for the C programming tutorial course:
it uses the internal oscillator.
it has an internal reset circuit. The internal oscillator is running at 4MHz and saves you using an external crystal or RC network. Similarly the reset circuit is also internal. Both these features save pins as what was once a dedicated reset pin can now be used as an I/O pin. Again using the internal oscillator saves two pins for use as I/O pins.End of C programming tutorial Setup page.

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Fix Bad Sectors on a Hard Disk

Step 1:
First, recognize the common causes of bad sectors. Sometimes, a sector just goes physically bad. This means it just won't work anymore, and there is no way to repair it. It's common, and expected, but if you get enough the drive will become unusable and you'll need to replace it. Two other causes are simple drive instability or incorrect mapping; formating usually solves both of these (though not always).

Step 2:
The first step is to run the CheckDisk utility (chkdsk from your command prompt). This will locate the bad sectors, and mark them as such. It will, if possible, move the data from the bad sectors to good ones. Then, in the future, your system just won't use the bad sectors. If the utility tells you that there were several thousand bad sectors, your hard drive should be backed up and replaced as soon as possible.
Step 3:
It Step 2, doesn't solve the problem, back up your existing data and start clean by reformatting your drive. This should fix any 'cosmetic' damage.
Step 4:
If Step 3 didn't correct any problems, that your drive has sustained physical damage. There is no way to repair physical damage and restore data lost as a result. The drive must be replaced.
Step 5:
If you hear an kind of clicking, scratching or rough whirring noises (aside from the ordinary hum of the disk) you should back up and replace the disk. These are all signals of physical crash. These can happen a few sectors at a time, or take the entire drive at once.
If you want to fix the bad sector in your Hard Disk Drive,all you have to do is
1. Insert the OS CD
2. Reboot the computer and boot through the bootable disk
3. Press the letter 'R' after the EULA,it will take you to the Recovery Console
4. It will ask for the user name and password, By default user name is Administrator
5. When asked for password just leave blank and press Enter
6. Type CHKDSK /R and press enter
7. It will take some time to complete the scan process
8. Once its completed type,it will return to C:\
9. Type command fixboot and press enter
10. Restart the computer in normal mode and now everything will up and running

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How to partition and format a hard disk in Windows XP

INTRODUCTION
summary
This step-by-step article describes how to partition and format a hard disk with Windows XP.Before you can install an operating system, you must first create a primary partition on the first physical hard disk (Disk 0) on your computer, and then format a file system on that partition. This partition is named the System partition. Alternatively, you can create a separate partition for the operating system on any physical hard disk. This is named the startup partition. The System partition on Disk 0 can also be used as a startup partition

MORE INFORMATION
moreinformation
Options for partitioning and formatting your hard disk
moreinformation
You can use the Microsoft Windows XP Setup program or the Fdisk and Format tools to partition and format System and startup partitions.For additional information about how to use Fdisk and Format to partition and format your hard disk, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
255867 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/255867/) How to use the Fdisk tool and the Format tool to partition or to repartition a hard disk If your computer is already running Windows XP, and you want to create partitions other than the System or the startup partitions, you can use the Windows XP Disk Management tools.For additional information about how to use the Windows XP Disk Management tools to partition and format your hard disk, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
309000 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/309000/) How to use Disk Management to configure basic disks in Windows XP
Important things to consider before you partition and format your hard disk
moreinformation
Consider the following questions before you partition and format your hard disk:
•Have you prepared the hard disk by following the manufacturer's instructions?Set the jumpers and the cabling according to the role of the hard disk (for example, master or subordinate) and make any required BIOS (or CMOS) changes. See the documentation that came with your hard disk and motherboard, or contact the manufacturers.
•What type of file system do you want to use?You can use either the FAT or NTFS file systems.For additional information about the differences between the FAT and NTFS file systems, click the following article numbers to view the articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base: 100108 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/100108/) Overview of FAT, HPFS, and NTFS file systems
310525 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/310525/) Description of the FAT32 file system in Windows XP
•Does the hard disk already contain data? If yes, have you backed up all your important data?If not, back up your data before you continue. When you partition and format a hard disk, all the data on that partition is permanently deleted. You can view current partition information without deleting your data.For additional information about how to use the backup utility or the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard, click the following article numbers to view the articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
320820 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/320820/) How to use the Backup utility to back up files and folders in Windows XP Home Edition
309340 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/309340/) How to use Backup to restore files and folders on your computer in Windows XP
293118 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/293118/) How to use the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard
306186 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/306186/) How to use the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard from CD-ROM
306187 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/306187/) How to use the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard Disk in Windows XP
•Does the hard disk have a drive overlay or a disk management program?If your computer uses drive overlay software for large hard disk support, do not use the Windows XP Setup program to partition or to format the drive until you have verified Windows XP compatibility with the software manufacturer. If you do not know whether you have drive overlay software installed, contact the software manufacturer before you continue.
•Do you have the floppy disks or the CD-ROMs that you need to reinstall your software?Make sure that you have the software so that you can reinstall your programs after you partition and format your drive. If you purchased an upgrade for a program, make sure that you have the full version of the original program. Many upgrades for programs require a compliance check before you can install the upgraded product. If you cannot find the original floppy disks or CD-ROMs, contact the software manufacturer before you continue.
•Do you have updated device drivers backed up on storage other than the drive that you want to format and partition?If you have installed an updated device driver for your peripheral devices (for example, modems and printers), make sure that you back up the new driver for the device to a location other than the drive that you want to format and partition. Therefore, you can reinstall it after you install your operating system.
•Can you start your computer from the CD-ROM drive?
How to partition and format your hard disk by using the Windows XP Setup program
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Important If you follow these steps on a hard disk that is not empty, all the data on that hard disk is permanently deleted. We recommend that you back up your hard disk before you follow these steps.To partition and format your hard disk by using the Windows XP Setup program:
1.Insert the Windows XP CD-ROM into your CD-ROM drive or DVD-ROM drive, or insert the first Windows XP Setup disk into the floppy disk drive, and then restart the computer.Note To start your computer from the Windows XP CD-ROM (or from the startup disk), your computer must be configured to start from the CD-ROM drive, the DVD-ROM drive, or the floppy disk drive. In some cases, you may have to modify your computer's BIOS settings to set this configuration. For information about how to configure your computer to start from the CD-ROM drive, the DVD-ROM drive, or the floppy disk drive, see the documentation that is included with your computer, or contact the computer manufacturer.
2.If you are starting the computer from the Windows XP CD-ROM, select any options that are required to start the computer from the CD-ROM drive if you are prompted to do this.Note If your hard disk controller requires a third-party original equipment manufacturer (OEM) driver, press F6 to specify the driver.For more information about how to use F6 to supply a third-party OEM device driver while the Windows Setup program is running, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
314859 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/314859/) Limited OEM driver support is available with F6 during Windows XP Setup If you are starting from the Windows XP Setup disks, insert each of the additional disks when you are prompted, and then press ENTER to continue after you insert each disk.
3.At the Welcome to Setup page, press ENTER.
4.Note If you are using the Setup disks (6 bootable disks), the setup will prompt you to instert the Windows XP CD.
5.Press F8 to accept the Windows XP Licensing Agreement.
6.If an existing Windows XP installation is detected, you are prompted to repair it. To bypass the repair, press ESC.
7.All the existing partitions and the unpartitioned spaces are listed for each physical hard disk. Use the ARROW keys to select the partition or the unpartitioned space where you want to create a new partition. Press D to delete an existing partition, or press C to create a new partition by using unpartitioned space. If you press D to delete an existing partition, you must then press L (or press ENTER, and then press L if it is the System partition) to confirm that you want to delete the partition. Repeat this step for each of the existing partitions that you want to use for the new partition. When all the partitions are deleted, select the remaining unpartitioned space, and then press C to create the new partition.Note If you want to create a partition where one or more partitions already exist, you must first delete the existing partition or partitions, and then create the new partition.
8.Type the size in megabytes (MB) that you want to use for the new partition, and then press ENTER, or just press ENTER to create the partition with the maximum size.
9.Repeat Steps 4 and 5 to create additional partitions if you want them.
10.If you want to install Windows XP, use the ARROW keys to select the partition where you want to install Windows XP, and then press ENTER. If you do not want to format the partition and install Windows XP, press F3 two times to quit the Windows Setup program, and then do not follow the remaining steps. In this case, you must use a different utility to format the partition.
11.Select the format option that you want to use for the partition, and then press ENTER. You have the following options:
•Format the partition by using the NTFS file system (Quick)
•Format the partition by using the FAT file system (Quick)
•Format the partition by using the NTFS file system
•Format the partition by using the FAT file system
•Leave the current file system intact (no changes)The option to leave the current file system intact is not available if the selected partition is a new partition. The FAT file system option is not available if the selected partition is more than 32 gigabytes (GB). If the partition is larger than 2 GB, the Windows Setup program uses the FAT32 file system (you must press ENTER to confirm). If the partition is smaller than 2 GB, the Windows Setup program uses the FAT16 file system. Note If you deleted and created a new System partition, but you are installing Windows XP on a different partition, you will be prompted to select a file system for both the System and startup partitions.
12.After the Windows Setup program formats the partition, follow the instructions that appear on the screen to continue. After the Windows Setup program is completed, you can use the Disk Management tools in Windows XP to create or format more partitions.For additional information about how to use the Windows XP Disk Management tools to partition and format your hard disk, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
309000 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/309000/) How to use Disk Management to configure basic disks in Windows XP
Troubleshooting
moreinformation
For additional information about how to troubleshoot partition problems in Windows XP, click the following article numbers to view the articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
316505 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/316505/) Windows XP does not recognize all available disk space
310359 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/310359/) Cannot view NTFS logical drive after using Fdisk
310561 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/310561/) Maximum partition size using the FAT16 file system in Windows XP
314097 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/314097/) How to use Convert.exe to convert a partition to the NTFS file system
301340 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/301340/) During Setup you are unable to format a partition with a File Allocation Table format
307844 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/307844/) How to change drive letter assignments in Windows XP
315224 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/315224/) How to remove the Linux LILO Boot Manager
REFERENCES
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For additional information, click the following article numbers to view the articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
314470 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/314470/) Definition of System partition and Boot partition
314878 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/314878/) The default cluster size for the NTFS and FAT file systems
310525 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/310525/) Description of the FAT32 file system in Windows XP
314081 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/314081/) The purpose of the Boot.ini file in Windows XP For additional information about how to create and manage partitions in Windows XP, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
307654 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/307654/) How to install and use the Recovery Console in Windows XP

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Disk partitioning

Disk partitioning is the creation of divisions of a hard disk. Once a disk is divided into several partitions, directories and files can be grouped by categories such as data type and usage. Space management, access permissions and directory searching are based on the file system installed on a partition. First decide how many separate categories of data are needed and the size of each. More categories provide more control but too many become a nuisance. One scheme is to separate the operating system files from user files. Having a partition for swapping, separate from system utilities, keeps frequently used programs and data near each other. Having browser cache files in a separate partition keeps them away from other files. The frequency of update and access is an important consideration for categorizing files. Separating email from audio or photos is a good idea. Files that can be retrieved from other sources can be grouped together. Careful consideration of the size of the partition is necessary as the ability to change the size depends of the file system installed in the partition..

Now decide what file system to install in the partition. Choosing different file systems is a reason to partition the disk because each file system has different characteristics related to performance and access restrictions.
(This article gets increasingly technical at this point)
Other benefits include:
The use of multi-booting setups, which allow users to have more than one operating system on a single computer. For example, one could install Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows or others on different partitions of the same hard disk and have a choice of booting into any operating system (supported by the hardware) at power-up.
Sharing swap partitions between multiple Linux distributions, so such partitions use less hard drive space.
Protecting or isolating files, to make it easier to recover a corrupted file system or operating system installation.
Raising overall computer performance because smaller filesystems are more efficient. For instance, large hard drives with only one NTFS filesystem typically have a very large Master File Table (MFT) and it generally takes more time to read this MFT than the smaller MFTs of smaller partitions.
Higher levels of data organization, raising the user efficiency of the system, for example separate partitions dedicated to digital movie processing, photos, email mailboxes or browser cache.
Partitions may be customized to different requirements, for example, allowing for read-only partitions to protect data: if one partition is damaged, none of the other file systems are affected, and the drive's data may still be salvageable.

PC BIOS partition types
This section describes partitions as used in MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows and Linux on PC compatible computer systems; for examples of partitioning schemes used in other operating systems, see Slice (disk) and BSD disklabel.
A PC hard disk can contain either as many as four primary partitions, or 1-3 primaries and a single extended partition. Each of these partitions are described by a 16-byte entry in the Partition Table which is located in the Master Boot Record.
The "type" of a partition is identified by a 1-byte code found in its partition table entry. Some of these codes (such as 0x05 and 0x0F) may be used to indicate the presence of an extended partition, but most are used by operating systems that examine partition tables to decide if a partition contains a file system they can mount/access for reading or writing data.
Once a specific partition's type has been identified, additional information about its purpose and probable contents may be found (see: List of partition identifiers for PCs as one such resource). For example, some type codes are used to hide a partition's contents from various operating systems. However, if an OS or some partitioning tool has been programmed to also examine the boot sectors of any partition, then its file system may no longer remain hidden. (Note: There are no officially assigned partition types; thus, more than one kind of file system may lay claim to the same code value.)
Primary (or Logical)
A primary (or logical) partition contains one file system. In MS-DOS and earlier versions of Microsoft Windows systems, the first partition (C:) must be a "primary partition". Other operating systems may not share this limitation; however, this can depend on other factors, such as a PC's BIOS.
The "partition type" code for a primary or logical partition can either correspond to a file system contained within (e.g. 0x07 means either an NTFS or an OS/2 HPFS file system) or indicate the partition has a special use (e.g. code 0xBC may mean an Acronis Secure Zone and code 0x82 usually indicates a Linux swap partition). The FAT16 and FAT32 file systems have made use of quite a number of partition type codes over time due to the limits of various DOS and Windows OS versions. Though a Linux operating system may recognize a number of different file systems (ext2, ext3, reiserfs, etc.), they have all consistently used the same partition type code: 0x83 (Linux native).
[Extended
An extended partition is secondary to the primary partition(s). A hard disk may contain only one extended partition; which can then be sub-divided into logical drives, each of which is (under DOS and Windows) assigned additional drive letters.
For example, under either DOS or Windows, a hard disk with one primary partition and one extended partition, the latter containing two logical drives, would typically be assigned the three drive letters: C:, D: and E: (in that order).
See Extended Boot Record for information on the structure of an extended partition.
Compressed disks
Hard disks are sometimes compressed to create additional space. Under MS-DOS and early Windows, programs such as STACKER (DR-DOS except 6), SuperStor (DR-DOS 6), DoubleSpace, or DriveSpace (Windows 95) were used. This compression was done by creating a very large file on the partition, then storing the disk's data in this file. At startup, device drivers opened this file and assigned it a separate letter. Frequently, to avoid confusion, the original partition and the compressed drive had their letters swapped, so that the compressed disk is C:, and the uncompressed area (often containing system files) is given a higher name. (SuperStor required a separate device driver to be loaded, DEVSWAP.COM).
Versions of Windows using the NT kernel, including the most recent versions, XP and Vista, contain intrinsic disk compression capability. The use of separate compression utilities has declined sharply.
Partitioning schemes
Microsoft Windows
With Microsoft Windows, the standard partitioning scheme is to create a single active primary partition, the C: drive, where the operating system, user data, applications, and page file all reside. Some users, however, prefer to create multiple partitions so that the operating system can be stored separately from other kinds of data. Proponents of multiple partitions generally point to the benefit of being able to erase a single partition (typically the operating system itself) while retaining the other data. When used in conjunction with third-party partition management programs such as Acronis True Image, Norton Partition Magic, Norton Ghost, or specialized recovery programs that come with computers manufactured by most major manufacturers, the use of multiple partitions allows computer users to quickly recover from viruses, rootkits, and trojan horses or an otherwise damaged, corrupt or compromised operating system. Windows Vista includes an inbuilt 'Disk Management' program which allows for the creation, deletion and movement of partitions.
Unix
For Unix-based and Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and Mac OS X, the creation of separate partitions for /boot, /home, /tmp, /usr, /var, /opt, swap and all remaining files under the "/" (root directory) is possible. (The same is true for Sun operating systems, except their partitions are called slices.) Such a scheme has a number of potential advantages: if one file system gets corrupted, the rest of the data (the other file systems) stay intact, minimizing data loss; partitions can be accessed read-only and the execution of setuid files disabled thus enhancing security; performance may be enhanced due to less disk head travel. This method has the disadvantage of subdividing the drive into fixed-size partitions, so a user could run out of hard drive space in his or her /home partition, even though other partitions still have plenty of usable space. A good implementation requires the user to predict how much space each partition will need, which may be a difficult task; especially for new users. Logical Volume Management, often used in servers, increases flexibility by allowing data in volumes to expand into separate physical disks (which can be added when needed); another option is to resize existing partitions when necessary. Typical desktop systems are often comprised of a single "/" (root directory) containing the entire filesystem plus a much smaller swap partition. By default, Mac OS X systems use a single "/" (root directory) containing the entire filesystem (including the swap file) as a point of simplicity (but other setup options do exist).
Partition recovery
When a partition is deleted, in general, only its partition table entry is removed from a table; and although the data is no longer accessible, it still remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities, (such as TestDisk and gpart), can locate lost file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. However, some disk utilities may also overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It may be possible to restore a FAT32 or NTFS partition if a backup boot sector is available.

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The Differences Between Hubs, Switches and Routers

Some technicians have a tendency to use the terms routers, hubs and switches interchangeably. One minute they're talking about a switch. Two minutes later they're discussing router settings. Throughout all of this, though, they're still looking at only the one box. Ever wonder what the difference is among these boxes? The functions of the three devices are all quite different from one another, even if at times they are all integrated into a single device. Which one do you use when? Let's take a look...

Hub, Switches, and Routers: Getting Started with Definitions
HubA common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
SwitchIn networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. Switches operate at the data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model and therefore support any packet protocol. LANs that use switches to join segments are called switched LANs or, in the case of Ethernet networks, switched Ethernet LANs.
RouterA device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP.s network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.

The Differences Between These Devices on the NetworkToday most routers have become something of a Swiss Army knife, combining the features and functionality of a router and switch/hub into a single unit. So conversations regarding these devices can be a bit misleading — especially to someone new to computer networking. The functions of a router, hub and a switch are all quite different from one another, even if at times they are all integrated into a single device. Let's start with the hub and the switch since these two devices have similar roles on the network. Each serves as a central connection for all of your network equipment and handles a data type known as frames. Frames carry your data. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted on to the port of the destination PC. The big difference between these two devices is in the method in which frames are being delivered. In a hub, a frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports. It doesn't matter that the frame is only destined for one port. The hub has no way of distinguishing which port a frame should be sent to. Passing it along to every port ensures that it will reach its intended destination. This places a lot of traffic on the network and can lead to poor network response times. Additionally, a 10/100Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its ports. So when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the maximum available bandwidth. If, however, multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that bandwidth will need to be divided among all of those systems, which will degrade performance. A switch, however, keeps a record of the MAC addresses of all the devices connected to it. With this information, a switch can identify which system is sitting on which port. So when a frame is received, it knows exactly which port to send it to, without significantly increasing network response times. And, unlike a hub, a 10/100Mbps switch will allocate a full 10/100Mbps to each of its ports. So regardless of the number of PCs transmitting, users will always have access to the maximum amount of bandwidth. It's for these reasons why a switch is considered to be a much better choice then a hub. Routers are completely different devices. Where a hub or switch is concerned with transmitting frames, a router's job, as its name implies, is to route packets to other networks until that packet ultimately reaches its destination. One of the key features of a packet is that it not only contains data, but the destination address of where it's going. A router is typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two Local Area Networks (LANs) or Wide Area Networks (WAN) or a LAN and its ISP's network . for example, your PC or workgroup and EarthLink. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Using headers and forwarding tables, routers determine the best path for forwarding the packets. Router use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts. Today, a wide variety of services are integrated into most broadband routers. A router will typically include a 4 - 8 port Ethernet switch (or hub) and a Network Address Translator (NAT). In addition, they usually include a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, Domain Name Service (DNS) proxy server and a hardware firewall to protect the LAN from malicious intrusion from the Internet. All routers have a WAN Port that connects to a DSL or cable modem for broadband Internet service and the integrated switch allows users to easily create a LAN. This allows all the PCs on the LAN to have access to the Internet and Windows file and printer sharing services. Some routers have a single WAN port and a single LAN port and are designed to connect an existing LAN hub or switch to a WAN. Ethernet switches and hubs can be connected to a router with multiple PC ports to expand a LAN. Depending on the capabilities (kinds of available ports) of the router and the switches or hubs, the connection between the router and switches/hubs may require either straight-thru or crossover (null-modem) cables. Some routers even have USB ports, and more commonly, wireless access points built into them. Some of the more high-end or business class routers will also incorporate a serial port that can be connected to an external dial-up modem, which is useful as a backup in the event that the primary broadband connection goes down, as well as a built in LAN printer server and printer port. Besides the inherent protection features provided by the NAT, many routers will also have a built-in, configurable, hardware-based firewall. Firewall capabilities can range from the very basic to quite sophisticated devices. Among the capabilities found on leading routers are those that permit configuring TCP/UDP ports for games, chat services, and the like, on the LAN behind the firewall. So, in short, a hub glues together an Ethernet network segment, a switch can connect multiple Ethernet segments more efficiently and a router can do those functions plus route TCP/IP packets between multiple LANs and/or WANs; and much more of course.

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Basic Computer Tutorial

This basic computer tutorial is written for those who do not know very much about computers. The purpose of this basic computer tutorial is to help the reader better understand how to use their computer more effectively and safely. It will help the reader understand:

What files and file types are.
How to copy files.
Where your files are stored.
What the parts of your computer are.
What an operating system is.
What a computer program is.
Security and Performance
With the above basic information, this tutorial will explain methods that you can do to make your system more secure, keep your data safe by backing it up, and avoid most performance degredation caused to bad applications and SPAM.

How some file types can be used by third parties to gain control of your computer.
How to modify your file view settings so you are not as easily fooled by e-mails containing viruses.
How to prevent viruses and worms.
How to reduce SPAM.
How to back up your files.
How to reduce or eliminate unwanted programs that could reduce your system performance.
What to do if you receive a virus or worm.
What to do if you receive an e-mail telling you that an e-mail you sent contained a virus.


This basic computer tutorial gives some basic information about hardware, operating systems, and programs in the first half to help the reader understand later information about files, e-mail and computer security practices. Depending on the reader's level of knowledge, some of the basic information may be skipped and the reader may refer to the terms page if they do not understand some of the terms.

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